The End of the Tokugawa: The Meiji Restoration

The United States force a trade treaty on Japan. Katsu Kaishu captains Japan’s first journey across the Pacific as Bakufu officials travel to America to formalize the trade treaty.

The Tokugawa shogunate is in decline and faces divisions between 13 year old Tokugawa Iesada, who required a regent, and 22 year old Yoshinobu.

Choshu rebels attack foreign ships and suffer the consequences.

Choshu and Satsuma reach a secret alliance.

The Bakufu plans a punitive expedition against Choshu but are out-maneuvered.

The sudden death of the Emperor and a coup in the Imperial Court leads to Choshu receiving an amnesty.

Choshu and Satsuma use the Imperial Pennants to defeat the Bakufu. The Tokugawa era ends in Japan with the final shoguns of Japan.

The Meiji Restoration ends 265 years of Tokugawa rule in Japan. The Meiji Emperor assumes the throne and a modernizing Japan.

Timestamps
00:00 – Why Japanese History Matters to Chinese History
00:31 – The USA Forces a Trade Treaty on Japan and Exposes Internal Japanese Divisions
04:43 – Japanese Sailors and Officials Travel to America to Ratify the Treaty
08:24 – The Closed Japanese System is Disrupted
09:06 – Revere the Emperor and Expel the Barbarians
10:50 – Choshu Push Back Against the Bakufu and then Satsuma Too
12:55 – Katsu Kaishu Proposes a New Japanese Navy
13:40 – Choshu Tries to Expel the Barbarians
15:17 – Western Navies Punish Choshu
17:24 – Choshu Rebels Against the Tokugawa Regime
21:05 – Satsuma Allies with Choshu Against the Tokugawa Regime
24:34 – The Meiji Restoration

Japan’s defeat of China in a war in 1894-1895 will shock the Chinese. Many Chinese will end up studying in Japan. Plus, in the 20th century,  a militant, expansionist  and nationalist Japan will invade China and cause much suffering. These episodes are meant to discuss what happened in Japan during the 19th century in response

To the arrival of western navies and traders. This will help our discussions of China’s late 19th century developments and eventual revolutions. Returning now to the political situation in Japan when American consul Harris was demanding a trade treaty with Japan. Ii Naosuke was the de facto leader of the dying shogun Iesada’s Senior Council.

Naosuke then became regent to the 13-year-old shogun, who succeeded Iesada. Naosuke had the advantage of tradition and bloodlines in pursuing power, both for himself and for the 13-year-old next shogun, who would require a regent given his young age. But not everyone thought  birth order and bloodlines 

To be the best ways to determine leadership. For an example of why hereditary daimyo or nobles were weak during this time of profound change, consider Manabe Akikatsu. He was a Senior Councillor and daimyo of Sabae. Sir Rutherford Alcock, a British Minister,  was speaking with Manabe  about Japan’s mismanagement of exchange rates.

Manabe answered, “Don’t ask me. I’m a daimyo. I don’t know about such things as gold and silver standards or exchange rates. Ask the commissioners of financial and foreign affairs, who are in charge of such matters.” When the officials in the Foreign Office heard about this, they made fun of him and “I’m

A daimyo. I don’t know about such things”, became a running joke. Ii Naosuke, the head of the shogun Iesada’s Senior Council and then regent to the young shogun was more capable. He also was somewhat fearless in being willing to agree to a trade treaty with the Americans

Even though he understood how unpopular it was in Japan. There were factions in Edo and in the Imperial Court in Kyoto who favoured Yoshinobu, a capable 22-year-old, for shogun. But Ii Naosuke was able to gain control and consolidate power through demotions of his opponents. He pushed for a trade treaty.

He was conservative in terms of who should hold power and radical in calling for the opening of Japan and for economic development. He didn’t support the treaty because he liked the West. Like most Japanese, he resented the way the foreign powers were pushing themselves on Japan.

But he feared war with the USA at this time and believed that a treaty now would allow Japan time to build its economy and military. Harris was pressuring Japan. He reminded Japan that Britain and France had just agreed to the Treaty of Tianjin following the Second Opium War.

French and British veterans were nearby and clearly the West was willing to resort to force, if necessary, to get treaties negotiated. Naosuke preferred to get the Emperor to agree, but he wasn’t going to wait. In July 1856, he concluded a preliminary trade treaty with the USA on the understanding that

It would be ratified later. Four Japanese ports were to be opened to trade, including at Yokohama, Nagasaki and Kobe. Foreign settlements would be allowed at those four ports until January 1, 1863. The American consul could reside at Edo and Osaka. Similar treaties were soon signed with the Netherlands, Russia, Britain and France.

Custom tariffs were fixed at twenty percent. Most of the Bakufu understood why the treaties were necessary. But the faction that opposed the regency and wanted the 22-year-old shogun accused Naosuke of disloyalty to the Emperor and quietly sought intervention by the Imperial Court.

For the first time during the Tokugawa period, the Emperor issued a decree to the feudal lords criticizing the regency for signing the treaty and for a crackdown on the other faction by Naosuke. The power of the shogunate was undermined and the Emperor’s status was strengthened.

Naosuke responded with a further crackdown on the other faction, as they had committed treason in undermining the Bakufu regime. Nariaki, the leader of the other faction, was sentenced to house confinement for life and died the following year. Some other members of the “Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians” faction were executed

And others ordered to commit seppuku (ritual suicide). To ratify the trade treaty with the United States, Bakufu representatives travelled to Washington, DC. Two ships voyaged across the Pacific. Katsu Kaishu, who was a samurai turned naval cadet, turned captain who was mentioned last episode.

Katsu captained the Japanese vessel under the command of Kimura (a hereditary lord also mentioned last episode) and who had now been promoted to vice-commissioner of warships. And the 77 Bakufu representatives travelled on an American steam frigate. This was the first time that an official Japanese vessel had voyaged across the Pacific.

Two American naval officers were onboard and provided experience and guidance. Katsu later thanked them saying the ship would not have made it across the Pacific without them. When the Japanese vessel arrived at San Francisco, the sailors and officials had a chance to observe the United States for the first time.

They took detailed notes on how the Americans built coastal defences. Katsu told his gunner that they would not observe the usual cannon salute to their hosts because he didn’t believe his crew could manage it. But if the gunner could, he could have Katsu’s head.

The gunner took pride in mastering the cannon salute and afterwards told Katsu that “Your head belongs to me. But I think you’d better keep it where it is for a while. I’m sure you’ll be needing it during the rest of the voyage.” The entire crew laughed.

The samurai Bushido code was being incorporated into the Japanese navy. Katsu knew how to motivate his men. He gave them an opportunity to save face by suggesting that a task was impossible but also a chance to prove they could do it and exceed all expectations.

The sailors carefully observed the Americans while visiting San Francisco. They were astonished that the California governor at a ceremony entered the room by himself. They kept checking the door, expecting a large retinue behind him. They needed confirmation that he was the real governor.

The sailors stayed for two months while the Bakufu continued on to Washington, DC. First the American steamer went south to Panama. The Japanese delegation then crossed Panama by railroad before boarding a new ship on the eastern side of the isthmus before voyaging on to Washington, D.C.

This was, of course, before the construction of the Panama Canal. The Japanese sailors were intrigued by San Francisco’s gas lights and industrialization. All kinds of equipment were steam powered. Katsu observed that there was no distinction between soldier, farmer, artisan or merchant. Any person could engage in commerce.

The residents were polite and interested in their guests and not nearly as hostile to foreigners as the Japanese. Men travelled on the street without swords. And American men attended social gatherings with their wives. Katsu was much impressed with the country’s material progress and more egalitarian social

Structures and was committed to changing Japan’s antiquated ways. Although, he and other Japanese men did not see the need to spend social time with their wives. The Japanese sailors returned 4 months after they departed. They were greeted with shocking news. The regent to the 13-year-old shogun had been assassinated.

The vessel was boarded by interrogators to see if anyone was from the same han as the assassins. Katsu protected his crew and reassured the investigators that no such person was on board. Katsu was undiplomatic when the Commissioner of Warships asked his impressions of America.

He mentioned that the only thing he noticed was that in America, people achieved their position by intelligence and that was the opposite of Japan. Within a month, he had been demoted and removed from the navy. Around this time, budget deficits and inflation really exploded in Japan.

The Bakufu and the daimyo were incurring large debts to buy western military supplies and equipment. While prices in Japan had been very stable for centuries, now they skyrocketed. In some cities, costs increased five-fold within a 5-to-10-year period. Government revenues were not keeping pace with increased expenses.

The huge, new debts and foreign purchases disrupted what had been a stable, closed economy and financial system. The new trading also brought cholera. That was a new disease for Japan and at least 100,000 people died from it in Edo alone. Samurai started taking “Revere the Emperor and Expel the Barbarians” into their own

Hands. There were multiple cases of Japanese killing unarmed foreigners. This aggravated tensions between the foreigners and Japanese, which was the point, it also undermined the Bakufu’s authority. That was a secondary benefit to those resentful of their weak government. The anger was palpable and the samurai were always armed with razor sharp swords.

The shogunate responded usually by paying indemnities to the foreign governments. The Bakufu proposed a Union of the Court and Camp. The teenage shogun was engaged with Princess Kazu, the younger half sister of the Emperor Komei. The idea was to associate the shogun with imperial loyalism.

But it had the downside of further strengthening the rebirth of imperial authority. One of the Emperor’s advisors suggested adding a condition to the betrothal that the Bakufu agree to (eventually) expel the barbarians. That was accepted. So, with the union came a ticking obligation to eventually expel the barbarians.

Given the inferior state of the Japanese military,  the shogunate was never in  a position to successfully fight the western powers. So, the Bakufu couldn’t honour their promise to the Imperial Court. Eventually a deadline in 1863 was set. Nationalism was a growing force in Japan and the Bakufu was becoming, like the foreigners,

The enemy of the nationalists. “Revere the Emperor and Expel the Barbarians” evolved to “Imperial Loyalism and Down with the Bakufu” among its detractors. Choshu was a han in the far west of Japan’s main island of Honshu. So, it was well located for foreign trade. Choshu was controlled by an outside lord.

That means that back in the early 1600s, its daimyo had opposed Tokugawa Ieyasu and lost. Territory had been taken from the han and there was lingering resentment there towards the Tokugawa regime. This hostility to the Tokugawa evolved into Imperial Loyalism and anti-Bakufu sentiment at this period of change and disruption.

Another han controlled by an outside lord was Satsuma domain. It is in the southwest of Kyushu Island, which itself is in southwest Japan. This domain is close to the port of Nagasaki and also well placed for trade. Its daimyo was innovative.

Even before Commodore Perry had first arrived, Satsuma was already well into building furnaces for the manufacture of cannons, warships, rifles and other modern weaponry. It had fortified its coasts and already laid mines in the maritime approach to its castle town.

It had already been constructing Japan’s first modern warship for 4 months when Commodore Perry arrived. Satsuma’s lord could see the military future better than the Tokugawa elite in charge in Edo. Imperial loyalism was strong among the subjects of these outside lords.

Around this time, 1000 men of Satsuma were sent to the Imperial Capital, Kyoto, to help protect the Emperor and strengthen order. That was a violation of Bakufu law that prohibited feudal daimyo from sending a force into the Imperial Capital.

A bit later, the Bakufu ended the requirement for alternate residence by daimyo in Edo, the administrative capital. Some of those lords then chose to reside more in Kyoto, the Imperial capital. In the early 1860’s, for the first time in around 200 years, the shogun set foot in the Imperial Capital.

Control by the Tokugawa in Edo was breaking down. Katsu Kaishu was recommending that a national navy be built, funded by the whole country. Unhappy subjects should be signed up into the navy, to travel to Korea and China and to bring focus to their nationalism rather than simply causing domestic troubles.

Katsu’s advice would be put on the backburner. The shogunate was not willing to give up power and create truly national institutions. But it did agree to Katsu’s proposal to build a Naval Training Centre and shipyard in Kobe. Katsu also recommended a regional alliance with Korea and China for them all to build

Their navies and thus to collectively better resist western imperialism. But others wanted Japan to invade Korea instead, which Katsu opposed. When the deadline to expel the barbarians came and went in 1863 and the Bakufu had done little except build up forces, extremists from Choshu, the outside han, took matters into their own hands.

50 Choshu men fired on the American merchant steamer Pembroke from coastal batteries and two Choshu warships. The Choshu sailing warships were unable to reach the American vessel, which went to Shanghai for repairs. The bill was sent to the shogun by the Americans.

The Choshu rebels were heartened by the retreat by the Americans and then fired on the French steamer Kienchang in the same straight. It suffered four dead and one injured and a damaged engine before escaping to the open sea. The French issued a claim for damages from Nagasaki before departing for repairs at Shanghai.

Even though Japan had friendly relations with the Dutch for centuries, the Choshu men also fired on a Dutch steam corvette Medusa. It suffered 4 dead and 5 more injured before escaping. The Imperial Court praised Choshu and expressed the “great satisfaction” of the Emperor.

The Imperial Court encouraged other han to join in to expel the barbarians. But the Bakufu ordered Choshu to refrain from firing. Because the Choshu had experienced initial success, they ignored the Bakufu. But their daimyo’s military scientist warned the rebels that they were being foolish and the westerners had not been defeated.

If and when they returned, the real strength of the West would be seen. The rebels didn’t like his advice and assassinated him at night in his lodging. The Americans took revenge  with their sloop-of-war:  the Wyoming. It was in the area, looking for the Confederate raider Alabama.

But it took some time to avenge the recent attack on the Pembroke. This Union ship sunk two Choshu ships, damaged another, destroyed coastal batteries and burned much of a town along the coast. There were numerous Choshu casualties. All of this took a bit more than one hour.

Four days later, two French warships arrived. They destroyed other batteries and landed hundreds of troops. There was a clash between bayonets and samurai swords. The French were able to destroy cannons, hurl armaments and gunpowder into the sea and torch a village before withdrawing the same day. This was particularly humiliating.

If the samurai could not prevent this and Choshu had suffered such losses to just three ships, what hope was there to expel the barbarians from the whole country? One positive outcome from this debacle was that Choshu learned the problems of relying on samurai, who had not fought any wars in centuries.

Instead, the heir to the domain’s lord then launched Japan’s first modern militia, the Kiheitai (“Extraordinary Corps”). It was the first force in which men of merchant and peasant classes fought alongside samurai. Able bodied men, regardless of caste, were recruited for it. They were given modern weaponry and training.

There was tension between them and the traditional samurai. But a precedent had been set. Then 7 British ships arrived in Satsuma because of the killing of a Briton on horseback and for which no indemnity had yet been paid. A battle followed Britain seizing three of Satsuma’s steamers.

Satsuma fire did decapitate the British flag captain and another officer, but the British looted and burned the seized ships and destroyed coastal batteries. The Satsuma samurai fought ferociously but ineffectively with older weapons. The British retreated and Satsuma had to borrow indemnity funds from the Bakufu, which it never repaid.

So, two of the outside lord domains had been involved in fighting western navies. But they also resented each other and had a history of squabbles. Further western punitive expeditions against Choshu were being planned, in particular by the Dutch to avenge their losses but also by other western nations.

This caused much discussion in Edo and in Kyoto about what to do. At one point, there was a rumour that the Emperor would be removed from Kyoto and relocated to Edo for his own protection. A faction of Choshu rebels thought this would make the Emperor a hostage to the Bakufu.

The rebels fought with Tokaguwa troops in Kyoto. Fires broke out and 28,000 buildings burned. The Choshu troops retreated and were then labeled “Imperial Enemies” for firing at the Imperial Palace. War had broken out among the Japanese for the first time in centuries.

The Bakufu ordered 21 feudal lords of western Japan to prepare a punitive expedition against Choshu. The shogun was now 19 years old and said he would lead the campaign. While the shogunate was preparing, however, a western punitive mission reached Choshu by sea.

Seventeen warships, including 9 British, 4 Dutch, 3 French and one American, attacked Choshu. They destroyed Choshu’s coastal batteries, which had a maximum firing distance of 1800 feet or 550 metres. The Japanese fought bravely, but were not able to do much damage to the foreigners. So, they burned their own camps and retreated.

Over the next few days, foreign troops landed and were able to attack and destroy batteries. Choshu defenders fought, but their weapons included bows, arrows, spears and old-style muskets some of which required a tripod. They were no match for the better armed western marines. Choshu then negotiated a  peace with the foreigners.

They were prohibited from building or repairing coastal batteries. Foreign traders were to be treated as friendly and allowed to buy necessities. A ransom or indemnity needed to be paid, but the foreigners told the Bakufu that it could be waived if a Choshu port was opened to trade.

The Bakufu preferred to take responsibility for the indemnity rather than allowing the rebellious domain to have an active port with foreign trade. Some Japanese wondered if the foreigners attack on Choshu was at the behest of the shogun who was planning his own punitive expedition there. The shogun had 150,000 troops surround Choshu.

But instead of an invasion, a settlement was reached between the Bakufu and conservatives in Choshu. The heads of three rebel Choshu ministers were delivered…literally. A letter of apology from the daimyo was required, along with the demolition of Yamaguchi castle. A sticking point was whether 5 nobles would be handed over.

In the end, the Bakufu agreed that they could go into exile on Kyushu island rather than be handed over. The expedition ended without an invasion of Chushu by government troops. But then the rebels deposed the conservatives in Choshu. They attacked and took control of weapons and supplies. They then captured three local warships.

More rebels joined then. The regular army tried to put them down, but 100 rebels routed 1000 government soldiers. The rebels controlled Choshu and its forces. The Bakufu in Edo then demanded that the 5 nobles be sent to Edo rather than Kyushu Island.

The Emperor’s Court ordered that the Bakufu not attempt to bring the Choshu nobles and daimyo to Edo and instead the shogun was to be sent to Kyoto to appear before the Emperor. When the Bakufu wanted to bring a second punitive expedition against Choshu, the Tokugawa faced

Much resistance from other daimyo because Choshu’s position was allied with the Emperor while the shogun’s orders contradicted the Emperor’s. At least 9 of the han associated with the first punitive expedition opposed the second one. Satsuma han was one of the domains that opposed the second expedition.

While they were traditionally rivals of Choshu, around this time some quiet discussions were had between them. Satsuma came to see the benefit of allying with Choshu against the Bakufu, which was clearly in decline. Those that wanted a new Japan did not believe that the Tokugawa elite, who had governed

Japan for centuries, were the ones to move Japan forward. Eventually Satsuma and Choshu reached a secret alliance although many in the Bakufu heard something about an alliance between them. The main terms were that if either domain was attacked by the Bakufu, the other would come to their aid.

Also, Satsuma would lobby the Imperial Court for a pardon of Choshu. Both domains would do their upmost to seek a restoration of Imperial rule. Foreign powers were also maneuvering in 1865 and 1866. They were owed indemnities by the shogunate.

They offered to waive most of them if new ports were opened including Osaka, a major city very close to the Imperial Capital at Kyoto. The French wanted to ally with the Bakufu and prop them up in exchange for trade concessions and arms sales. The Bakufu did place military orders with the French.

The British, along with the Dutch and Russians, sensed the Bakufu’s decline and didn’t want to support them and preferred to gain imperial blessings for the treaties. With Satsuma’s help, Choshu rebels were able to purchase foreign weapons and thus overcome a trade blockade imposed on them by the Bakufu.

This was done with the knowledge and consent of the British, including Sir Harry Parkes, who had been a leader in the Second Opium War. While Choshu was re-arming and secretly in discussions with other han, the Bakufu made strong demands of Choshu.

They insisted that 1/7 of the domain be given up and that the daimyo and heir be turned over to Edo. Choshu did not capitulate and was surrounded on four fronts. Bakufu forces attacked and took a Choshu island. But following what has been called “the first modern sea battle” in Japanese history,

A small Choshu vessel did a surprise attack at night on larger Bakufu vessels and then retook the island. At Hiroshima, Choshu troops were victorious and advanced into Hiroshima lands. On another front, Choshu troops pushed into Hamada. The Hamada daimyo burned his castle and fled.

When Choshu beat the odds and also won at Kokura castle, it was clear that Choshu was winning. The Shogun then died childless at age twenty one from heart failure which some say was caused by vitamin B1 deficiency. His eight years as shogun (many of which were under a regency) had weakened the Tokugawa

System. He was replaced as head of the Tokugawa clan by his older relative, Hitotsubashi Yoshinobu. He who would end up being the last shogun of Japan. Yoshinobu wanted to continue the war against Choshu. Then Emperor Komei, who had supported the punitive expeditions against Choshu, died.

He is said to have died of small pox, but some believe he was assassinated. Those theorists believe that small pox should not have been fatal for a 36 year old in otherwise good health. They point to signs of his recovery before he began violently vomiting and bleeding from his body. They suspect poison.

In any event, 15 days after Komei’s death, Emperor Meiji ascended to the Imperial throne, in his late teens. Soon thereafter, a general amnesty was announced and forces of the punitive expedition disbanded. The Imperial Court was influenced by Satsuma and its allies.

Shogun Yoshinobu tried to reform the Bakufu on a ministerial system, but with strong central authority and with military support from France. Yoshinobu achieved some internal diplomatic wins and was consolidating power, but then France become distracted by events in Mexico associated with replacing Emperor Maximilien.

Japan was of lesser importance to Napoleon III of France who had competing priorities. Both Yoshinobu and the Choshu/Satsuma faction realized that the key to power lay with the Emperor. Yoshinobu tried to resign as shogun and transfer authority to the Emperor who would then ask Yoshinobu to govern in his name.

But the rebels were able to then arrange a palace coup in Kyoto with the support of the new Emperor’s grandfather. Yoshinobu was deposed and the Bakufu abolished. The daimyo of Choshu and his heir were exonerated. Bakufu loyalists were banned from Kyoto and a new provisional government set up under the Emperor.

Princes of the blood would fill the major positions. Yoshinobu opposed the coup and insisted that the Tokugawa were still in charge, especially to foreigners. But the new government ordered that the Tokugawa hand over a portion of their lands, since

The clan was no longer responsible for government and accordingly did not need as many resources. Fighting broke out between Tokugawa troops and Satsuma-Choshu militants south of Kyoto. At first, it was indecisive. But then the Satsuma and Choshu troops unveiled Imperial pennants on the 3rd day of fighting.

That seems to have turned the tide as one side was seen to be fighting for the Emperor while the Tokugawa side was against the Emperor. They retreated. This military defeat reinforced the apparent siding of the Emperor with Choshu and Satsuma. Other han now began to abandon the Tokugawa side.

Yoshinobu was torn whether to continue fighting or to submit. In the end, Katsu Kaishu helped convince Yoshinobu not to oppose the Emperor. For the good of Japan, he should submit to the Imperial Court. After some negotiations, he eventually did so.

Some Tokugawa loyalists continued to fight in the north, but without the support of their leader. Those Tokugawa samurai were in turn defeated. That is how 265 years of Tokugawa rule in Japan ended and a new national government, under the imperial authority of the Meiji Emperor, began. This is commonly called the Meiji restoration.

Next episode, we will look at the  military buildup of Meiji Japan and   its relationships with the Ryukyu  islands, Taiwan, Korea and China.